An ever growing number of states around the world are preparing for
conflict in the cyber domain, and, in this context, have been developing cyber warfare
by Emanuele Bonini
While international law is still struggling with defining norms on state actions in cyberspace, the latter is now increasingly viewed as a fifth domain of warfare, revealed a study conducted by the European Parliament. Although, for the time being, no cyber attack is known to have provoked death or physical damage to human beings, an ever growing number of states around the world are preparing for conflict in the cyber domain, and, in this context, have been developing national doctrines, cyber-defence strategies and defensive and offensive capabilities for cyber warfare. In today's highly interconnected world, cyberspace and the wide array of risks and threats associated with it have become more and more preoccupying for states. The increasing range and sophistication of threats in the cyber realm – from malware to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks to advanced persistent threats (APT) – have prompted efforts to protect against the risks posed to businesses and governments alike: economic and military espionage, theft of intellectual property, interference with critical infrastructure, and destruction of data. In this context, states are developing cyber-defence and cyber-offence capabilities to prepare for the advent of "cyber war".
United States: the country has militarised the response to cyber-attacks through its Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), launched in 2010 and bringing together the cyber components of the US Navy, the US Marine Corps, the army and air force into a unified command. USCYBERCOM is one of the largest cyber-defence organisations in the world. The Pentagon has also increased spending on cyber operations ($26 billion over the next five years) and pledged to build a 6.000 strong cyber force by 2016. Moreover, a 2013 presidential directive instructs the US to aid allies who come under foreign cyber attack;
China: the country has invested large sums in personnel and information infrastructure for cyber warfare. In addition to People's Liberation Army (PLA) operators, there is a large network of volunteer Militia Information Technology Battalions, or "net militia units", recruited from civilian talent pools. Besides the US, Chinese cyber attacks have targeted countries all over the world. Analysts suggest that Chinese attacks are less sophisticated technologically, but highly effective due to their large volume;
Russia: Cyberspace has become in Russia's interpretation a "new theatre of war" and one of the priorities for military R&D. The Military Doctrine of 2010 discusses the use of political and informational instruments to protect national interests and those of allies. Creation of a cyber-security command and a new cyber branch within the armed forces will enhance the preparedness of Russian armed forces to defend against attacks from cyberspace (and outer space). Russia is thought to use complex and advanced cyber attacks in support of its national interest and military goals. For example there is evidence that Russian military operations in Georgia during the 2008 war were supported by cyber operations.
Israel: In September 2014, the government created a National Authority for Cyber Defence, aimed at protecting civilians against cyber-attacks, while an elite cyber-defence unit has been set up within the Israeli Secret Service.
Iran: In March 2012, a decree was issued establishing the Supreme Council of Cyberspace, tasked with the coordination of national cyber warfare and information security. Previously, in June 2011, Iran announced that it planned to establish a cyber command for the armed forces to defend against cyber attack and to centralise operations. Iranian cyber capabilities are coordinated within the military by the Passive Defence Organisation.
Syria: Syria's most prominent hacker group is the Syrian Electronic Army (SEA), loyal to Bashar al-Assad and responsible for cyber attacks on governments and media critical of his regime. There is also possible SEA involvement in cyber attacks against Islamic State, to collect intelligence on behalf of the Syrian and Iranian governments.
Turkey: Turkey's military strategy, revised in October 2010, added cyber-security threats. The country established a cyber defence unit in 2012 within the armed forces.
South Korea: The Ministry of Defence established the Cyber War Centre in 2010, with the aim of increasing the security of government and financial information networks, and an independent Cyber Warfare Command with over 200 personnel for defensive and offensive operations in cyberspace. In February 2014, reports claimed the South Korean military was committed to developing "sophisticated cyber warfare tools".
North Korea: It appears to have been using cyber-attacks as a new weapon to disrupt network systems, in particular in South Korea and the US, as well as to gain access to sensitive information. Reports point to a cyber warfare department of 3.000 personnel.
United Kingdom: A Global Operations and Security Control Centre (GOSCC) and a Defence Cyber Operations Group of the ministry of Defence respectively defend the ministry network, and integrate the ministry of Defence "cyber activities across the spectrum of defence operations". The UK announced in 2013 its intention to incorporate cyber warfare as part of future military operations and to develop a "cyber strike force" to respond to potential military use of cyber capabilities. According to the Military Balance 2014, the UK government announced, in 2011, a £650 million investment in a national cyber-security programme over four years. In 2014, the UK announced £2 million in funding for R&D focused on automated cyber defence response systems.
France: One of the Information systems defence and security strategy (2011) goal is making France a global power in cyber defence, so the country will develop cyber-intelligence capabilities , as well as "offensive capabilities". The main authority for cyber defence is the French Network and Information Security Agency (ANSSI, set up in 2009), responsible for detecting and responding to cyber attacks, supporting R&D and providing information to other governmental bodies. Other units and agencies within the armed forces focus either on cyber warfare or on cyber defence of the state military networks. In January 2014, the Defence ministry earmarked more than €1 billion for cyber defence.
Finland: In 2011 Finland announced the intention of investing in the development of cyber-defence weapons. The National Cyber Security Strategy (2013) states that the Finnish Defence Forces «will create a comprehensive cyber-defence capability», which will comprise cyber intelligence, cyber warfare and protection capabilities. A cyber defence unit to specialise in cyber warfare will be operational in 2015.
Lithuania: in 2011 the Baltic republic adopted a Programme for the Development of Electronic Information Security for 2011-2019. In 2015, Lithuania will establish a National Cyber Security Centre to prepare for cyber operations and defend against cyber attacks.
The Netherlands: The Defence Cyber Strategy adopted in 2012 considers as «priorities» strengthening cyber-defence capabilities, developing cyber-offensive military capabilities, and strengthening intelligence capabilities. A joint Defence Cyber Command, launched in September 2014, within the Dutch Army, is responsible for the development of cyber capabilities.
While international law is still struggling with defining norms on state actions in cyberspace, the latter is now increasingly viewed as a fifth domain of warfare, revealed a study conducted by the European Parliament. Although, for the time being, no cyber attack is known to have provoked death or physical damage to human beings, an ever growing number of states around the world are preparing for conflict in the cyber domain, and, in this context, have been developing national doctrines, cyber-defence strategies and defensive and offensive capabilities for cyber warfare. In today's highly interconnected world, cyberspace and the wide array of risks and threats associated with it have become more and more preoccupying for states. The increasing range and sophistication of threats in the cyber realm – from malware to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks to advanced persistent threats (APT) – have prompted efforts to protect against the risks posed to businesses and governments alike: economic and military espionage, theft of intellectual property, interference with critical infrastructure, and destruction of data. In this context, states are developing cyber-defence and cyber-offence capabilities to prepare for the advent of "cyber war".
United States: the country has militarised the response to cyber-attacks through its Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), launched in 2010 and bringing together the cyber components of the US Navy, the US Marine Corps, the army and air force into a unified command. USCYBERCOM is one of the largest cyber-defence organisations in the world. The Pentagon has also increased spending on cyber operations ($26 billion over the next five years) and pledged to build a 6.000 strong cyber force by 2016. Moreover, a 2013 presidential directive instructs the US to aid allies who come under foreign cyber attack;
China: the country has invested large sums in personnel and information infrastructure for cyber warfare. In addition to People's Liberation Army (PLA) operators, there is a large network of volunteer Militia Information Technology Battalions, or "net militia units", recruited from civilian talent pools. Besides the US, Chinese cyber attacks have targeted countries all over the world. Analysts suggest that Chinese attacks are less sophisticated technologically, but highly effective due to their large volume;
Russia: Cyberspace has become in Russia's interpretation a "new theatre of war" and one of the priorities for military R&D. The Military Doctrine of 2010 discusses the use of political and informational instruments to protect national interests and those of allies. Creation of a cyber-security command and a new cyber branch within the armed forces will enhance the preparedness of Russian armed forces to defend against attacks from cyberspace (and outer space). Russia is thought to use complex and advanced cyber attacks in support of its national interest and military goals. For example there is evidence that Russian military operations in Georgia during the 2008 war were supported by cyber operations.
Israel: In September 2014, the government created a National Authority for Cyber Defence, aimed at protecting civilians against cyber-attacks, while an elite cyber-defence unit has been set up within the Israeli Secret Service.
Iran: In March 2012, a decree was issued establishing the Supreme Council of Cyberspace, tasked with the coordination of national cyber warfare and information security. Previously, in June 2011, Iran announced that it planned to establish a cyber command for the armed forces to defend against cyber attack and to centralise operations. Iranian cyber capabilities are coordinated within the military by the Passive Defence Organisation.
Syria: Syria's most prominent hacker group is the Syrian Electronic Army (SEA), loyal to Bashar al-Assad and responsible for cyber attacks on governments and media critical of his regime. There is also possible SEA involvement in cyber attacks against Islamic State, to collect intelligence on behalf of the Syrian and Iranian governments.
Turkey: Turkey's military strategy, revised in October 2010, added cyber-security threats. The country established a cyber defence unit in 2012 within the armed forces.
South Korea: The Ministry of Defence established the Cyber War Centre in 2010, with the aim of increasing the security of government and financial information networks, and an independent Cyber Warfare Command with over 200 personnel for defensive and offensive operations in cyberspace. In February 2014, reports claimed the South Korean military was committed to developing "sophisticated cyber warfare tools".
North Korea: It appears to have been using cyber-attacks as a new weapon to disrupt network systems, in particular in South Korea and the US, as well as to gain access to sensitive information. Reports point to a cyber warfare department of 3.000 personnel.
United Kingdom: A Global Operations and Security Control Centre (GOSCC) and a Defence Cyber Operations Group of the ministry of Defence respectively defend the ministry network, and integrate the ministry of Defence "cyber activities across the spectrum of defence operations". The UK announced in 2013 its intention to incorporate cyber warfare as part of future military operations and to develop a "cyber strike force" to respond to potential military use of cyber capabilities. According to the Military Balance 2014, the UK government announced, in 2011, a £650 million investment in a national cyber-security programme over four years. In 2014, the UK announced £2 million in funding for R&D focused on automated cyber defence response systems.
France: One of the Information systems defence and security strategy (2011) goal is making France a global power in cyber defence, so the country will develop cyber-intelligence capabilities , as well as "offensive capabilities". The main authority for cyber defence is the French Network and Information Security Agency (ANSSI, set up in 2009), responsible for detecting and responding to cyber attacks, supporting R&D and providing information to other governmental bodies. Other units and agencies within the armed forces focus either on cyber warfare or on cyber defence of the state military networks. In January 2014, the Defence ministry earmarked more than €1 billion for cyber defence.
Finland: In 2011 Finland announced the intention of investing in the development of cyber-defence weapons. The National Cyber Security Strategy (2013) states that the Finnish Defence Forces «will create a comprehensive cyber-defence capability», which will comprise cyber intelligence, cyber warfare and protection capabilities. A cyber defence unit to specialise in cyber warfare will be operational in 2015.
Lithuania: in 2011 the Baltic republic adopted a Programme for the Development of Electronic Information Security for 2011-2019. In 2015, Lithuania will establish a National Cyber Security Centre to prepare for cyber operations and defend against cyber attacks.
The Netherlands: The Defence Cyber Strategy adopted in 2012 considers as «priorities» strengthening cyber-defence capabilities, developing cyber-offensive military capabilities, and strengthening intelligence capabilities. A joint Defence Cyber Command, launched in September 2014, within the Dutch Army, is responsible for the development of cyber capabilities.
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